The following is a summary of some of what I cover in my book, which by the way is about 95% complete. I'm looking at NDEs from an epistemological standpoint, which hasn't been done in such a robust way.

What do you think of the title: 'The Threshold of Consciousness: Insights from Near-Death Testimonies'

I'll also add chapter 4, which covers the main criticisms of my argument, in my next post. The eBook is about 120 pages. I'll probably be selling it on Amazon for about $4.99.

Epistemology of Testimonial Evidence in NDE Inquiry

The epistemology of testimonial evidence, as developed in The Threshold of Consciousness: Insights from Near-Death Testimonies, provides a rigorous framework for evaluating near-death experience (NDE) accounts as a legitimate source of knowledge about consciousness survival. Grounded in philosophical inquiry, this approach treats testimony as a primary knowledge path, comparable to its use in history, law, and science. With approximately 200-300 million NDE accounts worldwide, the framework underscores testimony's everyday importance and foundational role in human knowledge, revealing profound insights into consciousness and reality.

Defining Knowledge and Testimony

Knowledge is defined as justified true belief, requiring a proposition to be true, believed, and supported by robust evidence (Chapter 2). A fourth dimension, linguistic competence, ensures conceptual understanding through proper word use, critical for interpreting NDE reports. Testimony, one of five knowledge paths (alongside logic, sensory experience, linguistic training, pure logic), involves relying on others’ accounts to access truths beyond direct observation, such as historical events or scientific findings. In NDE research, testimony is central, as firsthand accounts (e.g., out-of-body perceptions, life reviews) provide the primary data for evaluating consciousness survival.

Testimony's Importance in Daily Life

Testimony permeates everyday knowledge, forming the foundation for much of what we accept as true. Consider facts like your birth date, Antarctica's existence, or DNA's role in genetics—you've likely never verified these independently, yet doubting them would be unreasonable. We rely on historians for ancient Rome's events, physicists for quantum mechanics, and doctors for internal bodily functions, none directly observable. Without testimony, our understanding of science, history, art, and morality would be severely limited, confined to personal experience. In NDE evaluation, this everyday reliance on testimony highlights its critical role, as millions of accounts offer insights into consciousness that deserve the same scrutiny as legal or historical reports.

Testimony's Foundational Role in Knowledge

Testimony is indispensable to knowledge itself, enabling access to vast information beyond individual capacity. In science, researchers trust colleagues' experimental reports; in law, juries rely on witnesses; in history, scholars depend on ancient accounts. This social dimension makes testimony a democratic tool, allowing anyone to assess credibility. For NDEs, with 200-300 million reports, testimony provides a robust dataset, evaluated through five criteria: volume (sheer number strengthens credibility), variety (diverse perspectives reduce bias), consistency (majority convergence on core features like radiant light), corroboration (independent verification, e.g., medical staff confirming details), and firsthand accounts (direct reports over hearsay, with trustworthiness assessed). These criteria, drawn from legal and historical practices, transform anecdotes into evidence, supporting conclusions about consciousness survival.

Subjective vs. Objective Elements

NDE testimony includes objective elements (verifiable details like surgical procedures) and subjective elements (e.g., feelings of love, encounters with deceased relatives). Corroborated objective elements, such as a child's verified ER observations, lend credibility to subjective reports, suggesting genuine experiences. Cultural variations affect interpretation (e.g., light as Jesus or ancestors), but core phenomena remain consistent, indicating universal features of consciousness.

Implications

This epistemology establishes NDE testimony as a valid knowledge source, supporting probable consciousness survival and challenging paradigms. It emphasizes testimony's daily importance—without it, knowledge would be isolated—and its foundational role in extending human understanding, fostering open inquiry into consciousness and existence.

"Estimated 400-800 million cases" how and by whom? — 180 Proof

The 1992 Gallup poll estimated that 5% of Americans had experienced NDEs, suggesting 13-15 million cases in the United States alone. A 2024 Scientific American review, citing studies like Kondziella et al. (2019) across 35 countries, estimates 5-10% global prevalence in the general population, representing potentially 400-800 million cases worldwide amid a 2025 world population of approximately 8.1 billion.

You want me to argue with you, but you don't understand basic logic. Moreover, you don't take the time to carefully read the thread or do basic research. Ya, right, "I'm projecting."

Your critique of my work reflects a surprisingly limited and elitist perspective on philosophy, misrepresenting both this discussion and the epistemological depth of this thread and my upcoming book, while also restricting a field that should be accessible to all. You say philosophy is solely “the love of wisdom” built on logic, dismissing belief-based arguments as mere fiction or faith. That’s not just a misreading of my project, it’s a fundamental misunderstanding of philosophy itself, reducing philosophy to a sterile caricature. Let me show how your definition excludes the very essence of philosophical inquiry and ignores its broad, inclusive nature, which this thread and my book on NDEs embrace through a disciplined, evidence-based framework.

First, your assertion that arguing from belief isn’t philosophy, likening my NDE work to debating Gandalf’s height, is absurdly reductive. Philosophy isn’t an ivory-tower club for logic-chopping purists; it’s the systematic exploration of life’s big questions, engaged by everyone from Socrates to the average person pursuing meaning in a coffee shop. As I argue in my book, epistemology, a core branch, is precisely about how we form and justify beliefs, whether about black holes, morality, or NDEs. Your example of Gandalf is a false analogy; it’s fiction, while NDE testimonies involve real people reporting verifiable experiences, like accurate surgical details during flatlined EEGs, documented in peer-reviewed studies (e.g., 2024 ScienceDirect on consciousness continuity). To claim this isn’t philosophy because it starts with belief (all knowledge starts with belief, then moves to being justified and true) is to dismiss the entire field of epistemology, from Plato onward. Ever heard of Descartes? His meditations began with personal belief in a deceiving god, hardly “brick-by-brick” logic, yet undeniably philosophy.

You sneer that my work is “faith” or “religion,” not philosophy, because I explore consciousness survival. That’s not just a personal jab, it’s a philosophical embarrassment. Philosophy has always tackled the speculative: Leibniz on possible worlds, Kant on noumena, even Chalmers on the hard problem of consciousness. Dismissing this as non-philosophical because it’s not yet “proven” ignores how philosophy engages open questions. Ever read Hume? He argued we can’t know causation, yet we philosophize about it daily. Everyone, yes, everyone, philosophizes when they question what they know, from kids asking “why” to scientists debating dark matter. Your gatekeeping excludes this universal human practice.

Your claim that I’m “avoiding evidence” and leaning on subjective experience is laughable. My book and this thread confront counterpoints head-on. Philosophy’s job isn’t to wait for science’s final verdict; it’s to build frameworks for what’s knowable now, which I do by integrating testimony, sensory experience, and logic. You’d see this if your view of philosophy wasn’t so myopically based.

Finally, your patronizing advice to “apply my passion” elsewhere, charity, neuroscience, teaching kids, reveals your contempt for philosophical inquiry into the profound. Questioning consciousness survival isn’t a distraction; it’s a core issue in metaphysics and epistemology, with implications for ethics and existence. A 2024 Taylor & Francis review shows NDEs’ cross-cultural consistency, suggesting a universal phenomenon worth exploring. If you think philosophy should only chase “real issues,” you’re not loving wisdom; you’re stifling it. Everyone philosophizes when they grapple with reality’s edges, from NDErs to skeptics like you. My book and this thread invite that universal engagement, rigorously and openly. Step up and do philosophy, not your blinkered dogma about what counts as philosophy.

Instead of pretending to understand philosophy, how about learning some philosophy? I don't think you understand basic logic.

It seems to me, however, that there is no evidence that two NDEs can be exactly the same. That is, they can be very similar and this is quite interesting. But IMO from the accounts I have read, the reports show differences that can't be explained only by referring to their different cultural backgrounds. — boundless

No two experiences, whether NDEs or everyday perceptions, are ever exactly identical, even among people sharing the same event in the same moment. Even witnesses at a car accident: Their accounts vary based on vantage point, attention, emotions, and memory, yet the core facts often align. This subjectivity is a hallmark of human consciousness, and it applies powerfully to NDEs. Research consistently shows that while NDEs share striking similarities (suggesting a possible universal mechanism), individual differences go beyond cultural backgrounds, influenced by personal psychology, expectations, neurobiology, and worldviews.

A 2024 Taylor & Francis review of NDEs across cultures and history found high similarity in features like out-of-body experiences (OBEs), encounters with light or beings, life reviews, and feelings of peace, appearing in approximately 60-80% of global reports. These similarities hold even when controlling for cultural expectations (e.g., Westerners might see Jesus, while Easterners describe Yama, but the "being of light" archetype persists). This is not unusual; it happens in our everyday experiences, too.

At the end of chapter 3 of my book, I give the following inductive argument with premises and a conclusion. Chapter 3 has much more depth to it than I'm giving here. This argument may be revised.

Logical Summary:

The Inductive Argument for Consciousness Survival

Based on the systematic analysis presented in this chapter, the central argument can be formulated as follows:

Core Premises:

P1: Extensive Testimonial Database - Millions of individuals across documented medical settings report near-death experiences involving conscious awareness during verified clinical death (estimated 400-800 million cases globally, with over 4,000 detailed firsthand accounts in academic databases).

P2: Universal Demographic Distribution - These reports occur uniformly across all variables that might indicate bias: age (including pre-verbal children), culture (Western, Indigenous, Asian, African), prior beliefs (including committed atheists), education level, and sensory capability (including congenitally blind individuals).

P3: Invariant Core Phenomenology - Despite demographic diversity, reports converge on identical structural elements: accurate out-of-body environmental perception, directed movement toward luminous phenomena, encounters with deceased individuals, comprehensive life reviews, and consistent psychological transformation patterns.

P4: Objective Verification Protocol - A substantial subset of cases includes independently corroborated details: specific medical equipment described accurately, verbatim conversations recorded by witnesses, precise environmental observations confirmed by multiple sources, and encounters with deceased individuals whose deaths were unknown to the experiencer.

P5: Optimal Testimonial Conditions - Reports satisfy established criteria for reliable testimony: immediate temporal proximity to events, firsthand rather than hearsay accounts, credible sources without apparent ulterior motives, and systematic documentation by medical professionals and researchers.

Methodological Foundation:

These premises satisfy the five classical criteria for strong inductive arguments:

• Numerical Sufficiency: Evidence volume exceeds standards applied to accepted historical and scientific conclusions
• Source Diversity: Universal distribution eliminates explanations based on cultural conditioning, selection bias, or demographic limitations
• Phenomenological Consistency: Identical core features across diverse populations indicate encounters with objective rather than subjective phenomena
• Independent Corroboration: Objective verification transforms subjective reports into testimonial evidence meeting legal and scientific standards
• Testimonial Reliability: Evidence meets or exceeds standards applied in historical research, legal proceedings, and scientific peer review

Logical Inference:

When testimonial evidence satisfies these methodological criteria across millions of cases with consistent objective corroboration, the most parsimonious explanation is that the reported phenomena correspond to objective reality rather than representing systematic delusion, cultural construction, or neurological artifact.

Alternative explanations (hallucination, cultural conditioning, false memory formation) fail to account for the evidence's specific features: objective corroboration during documented unconsciousness, consistency across belief systems and cultures, and enhanced rather than diminished consciousness during compromised brain states.

Conclusion:

Therefore, consciousness demonstrably persists beyond the death of the physical body, constituting strong inductive evidence that some form of awareness survives bodily death.

Evidential Status:

This conclusion achieves the same epistemic standing as well-established historical facts and scientific theories that rest on inductive reasoning from testimonial evidence. While inductive conclusions remain probabilistic rather than absolutely certain, the convergent evidence from millions of independently corroborated cases justifies rational confidence that consciousness survival beyond bodily death represents an objective phenomenon requiring serious theoretical accommodation rather than dismissive explanation.

The argument's strength derives not from any single case but from the systematic convergence of extensive, diverse, and independently verified testimonial evidence that meets established standards for reliable knowledge formation.

Just read any good logic book, and it will explain inductive reasoning. There are weak inductive arguments and strong inductive arguments depending on the amount of data or evidence. I explained this early in my thread. Most of science is based on inductive reasoning. The conclusions are probabilistic, unlike deductive arguments, where the conclusion follows necessarily if it's sound. Most of our everyday reasoning is inductive. All of the reasoning against my argument is inductive.

An impressive synopsis, clearly written and well-argued. — Wayfarer

That's the rough draft of the first chapter of my book. It's not an argument. In chapter 3, I'll make the inductive argument. In chapter 2, I set up the epistemology. In chapter 4, I'll take on the critics. I find most of the criticisms rather weak, so it won't be difficult. Thanks for your response and the kind words.

I don't spend much time responding because I'm trying to finish my book. I'll post here and there, but that's about it. I'll probably post on how the epistemology works within the scope of NDEs. The problem with most of the critics in this forum is that their epistemology is too narrow. My epistemology is a JTB model, but with a Wittgensteinian twist, so it's not a traditional JTB route. It incorporates Wittgenstein's language games (e.g., the language games of justification), his hinge propositions, and other related ideas.

For those of you who haven't read it already, some of my epistemology can be seen in my recent paper: https://thephilosophyforum.com/discussion/comment/995416

I would add that the ultimate hinge is love.

This isn't philosophy. This is an obsession. — Philosophim

I replied the way I did because of comments like the one I quoted above. I guess anyone who studies a subject for 20, 30, or 40 years could be called obsessive.

If you believe X, and you argue for a particular conclusion, then you're doing philosophy. It may be bad philosophy, but it's still philosophy. It doesn't matter what the subject matter is. It could be about chess, politics, ethics, mathematics, quantum theory, or Bigfoot; all of it involves philosophy to one degree or another. Even theology has a certain amount of philosophy connected with it. So, I'm not sure where you get your definition of philosophy, but to say I'm not doing philosophy tells me you don't understand what philosophy is.

Thanks, but that was just the 'Preliminary' material, i.e., the setup for the book. The actual argument is in chapter 3.

About 10% of NDEs are negative, and of the negative reports, only a small portion of those are hell-like. However, what I've noticed is that there are no warnings given to people that they're in danger of going to hell, which I find interesting. It's interesting because one might think that if they were in danger of hell, people on the other side would warn them, but this never occurs. They may interpret things they see as hell, but that doesn't mean there is a hell like Christians envision. As far as I can tell, there are no demons, no Satan, and no eternal punishment. I would say that no religion has a correct view of the afterlife.

It's also true that about 10% or higher of the reports on NDEs are fake. Some really famous NDE stories probably aren't true. I'm not saying A.J. Ayer's story isn't true; I'm just saying that people, especially on YouTube, create these stories to get clicks. I've studied over 5,000 NDEs, so I generally know when to be skeptical.

Thanks for the compliment.

You wouldn't know philosophy if it jumped up and bit you.

Ya, I understand.

Thank you, Banno. This book has been on my mind for years, but I've finally made real headway. I now have a full rough draft of the eBook completed. I'm approaching the problem of NDEs from an epistemological framework, examining if it's possible to claim knowledge based on the evidence of these phenomena. To properly grasp my point, it's essential to recognize how testimony functions in our daily lives and its crucial role in the justification process.

For those of you interested, this is a draft of the opening chapter of my book examining NDEs through rigorous philosophical analysis. The complete draft runs approximately 120 pages and follows a systematic structure: Chapter 2 establishes the epistemological framework that guides the investigation, Chapter 3 presents the central inductive argument for consciousness survival, Chapter 4 responds to major objections and counter-arguments, Chapter 5 explores alternative interpretations and broader implications, and Chapter 6 offers an extended philosophical analysis for readers interested in deeper epistemological ideas. I'm considering adding a seventh chapter, but haven't decided.

The book aims to move beyond typical NDE literature, neither collections of inspiring stories nor reflexive scientific dismissals, toward a methodologically rigorous evaluation of what testimonial evidence can actually tell us about consciousness and survival. By applying established criteria for evaluating testimony, the same standards used in historical research and legal proceedings, we can determine what conclusions the evidence supports and with what degree of confidence.

My title may change.


Beyond The Threshold: What We Know From Near-Death Experiences

Chapter 1: The Preliminaries

A Tale of Varied Interpretations: Why Assumptions Matter

In 1991, Pam Reynolds lay on an operating table at the Barrow Neurological Institute in Phoenix, undergoing a rare "standstill" procedure to remove a life-threatening aneurysm near her brain stem. Surgeons stopped her heart, lowered her body temperature to 60°F, and drained blood from her brain. She was clinically dead—no measurable brain activity, eyes taped shut, ears plugged with speakers emitting 100-decibel clicks to monitor brain stem function.

Yet Pam later described rising above her body, observing the surgical team with extraordinary precision. She noted the bone saw's peculiar shape—"like an electric toothbrush" with a groove for interchangeable blades. She saw the case containing spare blades. She heard a female voice say, "We have a problem—her arteries are too small," followed by a discussion of trying the other side. She reported being drawn through a tunnel toward a light more brilliant than anything imaginable, yet not painful to perceive. There she encountered deceased relatives, including her grandmother and an uncle she'd known only from photographs. They communicated without words: "It's not your time. You have to go back."

When surgeons later confirmed these details, the unusual design of the Midas Rex bone saw, the unexpected problem with her arteries requiring femoral access from the left side, and the exact words spoken—they faced an epistemological puzzle. Dr. Robert Spetzler, the renowned neurosurgeon who operated, admitted his bewilderment: "I don't have an explanation for it. I don't know how she can quote the conversation, see the instruments—these are things she shouldn't have been able to experience." He confirmed additional details that troubled him: Pam had accurately described the craniotomy drill's unexpected pitch, a high D natural that bothered her musician's ear, and the specific pattern in which they had shaved only the top portion of her head, leaving hair below for cosmetic reasons. "From a scientific perspective," Spetzler concluded, "I have to say, I don't know how to explain it."

Reynolds' case is not isolated. Dr. Eben Alexander, a Harvard-trained neurosurgeon and former skeptic, experienced a vivid NDE in 2008 during a coma from bacterial meningitis, describing a hyper-real realm with verified hospital details that challenge brain-based models. Similar verified accounts include a Dutch patient overhearing conversations during cardiac arrest, a Canadian learning of a distant death, and others describing surgical tools or distant events—all corroborated despite flat EEGs. These cases span ages, cultures, and contexts, suggesting consciousness may function independently of the brain.

Three readers encounter Pam's story. Mark, a neuroscientist, dismisses it immediately: "Anoxia, endorphins, temporal lobe seizures—the dying brain generates complex hallucinations. The surgical details? Lucky guesses or reconstructed memories from pre-operative briefings." Lila, who practices meditation and studies consciousness, sees vindication: "This proves what mystics have always known—consciousness transcends the physical brain. How else could she see and hear with no functioning sensory organs?" Elena, a surgical nurse, occupies an uncertain middle ground. She knows those specific bone saws weren't standard equipment in 1991. She's heard similar accounts from other patients. Yet her medical training resists non-physical explanations.

Three intelligent people examining identical evidence reach incompatible conclusions. Their fundamental assumptions about consciousness, evidence, and reality shape their interpretations before they even begin evaluating facts.

Mark assumes consciousness equals brain activity; therefore, any perception during brain death must be false. His materialism isn't a conclusion from evidence; it's the lens through which he views all evidence. Lila assumes consciousness can exist independently of the brain; therefore, veridical perception during brain death confirms her worldview. Pam's case doesn't prove her dualism; it determines how she interprets it. Elena recognizes that she doesn't know what consciousness is or how it relates to the brain; therefore, she remains genuinely puzzled by evidence that doesn't align with her expectations.

These same invisible assumptions operate throughout our lives. When a jury evaluates eyewitness testimony, they assume memory works like a video camera, despite decades of research showing it's more like a reconstruction. When we accept historical accounts of Julius Caesar crossing the Rubicon, we assume ancient writers recorded events accurately, yet dismiss contemporary accounts of anomalous experiences. When a doctor makes a diagnosis based on symptoms and test results that we cannot interpret ourselves, we trust their professional testimony, yet demand impossible standards of proof for personal accounts that challenge our worldview. In each case, our philosophical assumptions about knowledge, reliability, and possibility determine what evidence we accept or reject before we even begin our evaluation.

This book investigates a deceptively simple question: What can we actually know from testimonial evidence about near-death experiences? Not what we hope, fear, or assume, but what careful philosophical analysis reveals when we examine thousands of such accounts with the same rigor we'd apply to any other domain of human knowledge.

The answer matters. If consciousness can operate independently of the brain, even temporarily, it revolutionizes our understanding of human nature. If NDEs are purely neurological phenomena, they still reveal profound truths about how minds construct meaning in extremis. But we can't even begin this investigation without first examining our tools—the philosophical assumptions that determine what counts as knowledge, evidence, and rational belief.

NDEs Through History: A Timeless Phenomenon

In Book X of Plato's Republic, the warrior Er lay dead on a battlefield for twelve days before awakening to tell an astonishing tale. He had journeyed through the afterlife, witnessed souls ascending through a great chasm in the earth, and beheld a cosmic pillar of light "straighter than a rainbow" that held the universe together. At the center sat the three Fates—Clotho, Lachesis, and Atropos—while souls chose their next incarnations based on wisdom gained from past lives. Er watched his companions select their destinies before being sent back to warn the living: our choices echo through eternity.

This account from ancient Greece contains virtually every element modern researchers document in near-death experiences: separation from the body, journey to another realm, encounter with a brilliant light, meeting with supernatural beings, life review with moral implications, and return with transformative knowledge. The parallels are precise enough to unsettle our contemporary assumptions about when and where such experiences occur.

Medieval Europe provides its own remarkable accounts. Hildegard of Bingen, the 12th-century Benedictine abbess, nearly died at age forty-two from an illness that left her bedridden for months. During her crisis, she experienced what she called "the Living Light"—a radiance that pervaded all creation and spoke to her without words. "The light which I see is not located, but yet is more brilliant than the sun," she wrote. "I cannot examine its height, length or breadth, and I name it 'the cloud of the living light.'" Within this light, she encountered angelic beings who revealed cosmic truths about the nature of soul and body. Her experience transformed her from an unknown nun into one of the most influential visionaries of the Middle Ages, producing illuminated manuscripts that still captivate viewers with their attempts to render the ineffable in paint and gold leaf.

The 13th-century Sufi mystic Jalaluddin Rumi reported visions during severe illness of whirling in divine light, encountering boundless love that transcended physical form, shaping his poetry like the Mathnawi: "I died as a mineral and became a plant... and once more I shall die as man, to soar with angels blest." The Tibetan Bardo Thodol (8th century) outlines post-death journeys through Clear Light and deceased encounters. Indigenous traditions add depth: Lakota medicine man Black Elk's childhood vision of ascending to ancestral councils in radiant realms, or Yoruba elders guiding souls in luminous spaces.

What makes our current moment unique isn't the experiences themselves but two revolutionary developments. First, modern resuscitation techniques—CPR, defibrillation, advanced cardiac life support—routinely bring people back from states of clinical death that would have been irreversible throughout human history. A heart attack victim in ancient Athens stayed dead; today, they might return twenty minutes later with stories of the afterlife. Second, we now possess sophisticated tools for collecting and analyzing testimonial evidence on a global scale, allowing cross-cultural comparison impossible in previous eras.

These historical and cultural accounts force us beyond simplistic questions. Rather than asking whether NDEs represent universal truth or cultural construction, we must investigate how universal human experiences inevitably express themselves through available cultural symbols and languages. How do we distinguish the core phenomenon from its cultural clothing? What epistemological tools can separate experience from interpretation, especially when the experience itself transcends ordinary language?

The Shared Patterns of Near-Death Experiences

The historical accounts we've examined suggest consistent patterns across cultures and centuries. When physician Raymond Moody published Life After Life in 1975, he systematically identified fifteen recurring elements in NDE accounts, subsequently corroborated by thousands of cases. Bruce Greyson's NDE Scale, used in academic studies worldwide, identifies consistent elements that appear across thousands of cases: out-of-body experiences with accurate environmental perception, radiant light, and encounters with deceased relatives, corroborated by thousands of accounts.

The out-of-body experience occurs in roughly 75-85% of NDEs according to the Near-Death Experience Research Foundation's analysis of over 4,000 cases. Experiencers don't merely imagine floating; they report specific vantage points—typically above and to the right of their body—and later describe details they seemingly couldn't have known. Like Pam Reynolds observing her skull surgery from above, cardiac arrest patients have accurately reported which medical staff entered or left during resuscitation, what instruments were used, and even conversations in distant hospital corridors. Blind individuals report detailed "visual" perceptions during NDEs, accurately describing operating room layouts, staff clothing, and equipment configurations—all verified by personnel.

Movement through darkness toward light appears in 65-75% of Western accounts. But this isn't ordinary darkness or light. Experiencers struggle for adequate metaphors: "like being drawn through space faster than light," "a tunnel that was alive," "darkness that had texture and depth." The light itself defies physics—described as millions of times brighter than the sun yet not painful to perceive, emanating warmth and what many call "liquid love." Encounters with deceased individuals occur in approximately 70-80% of detailed accounts, but with intriguing specifics. Children under seven sometimes meet grandparents who died before they were born, later identifying them from family photos. Adults occasionally encounter recently deceased friends who reference shared experiences and demonstrate knowledge of events that occurred after their own deaths. In a University of Virginia study, 22% of experiencers met someone during their NDE whose death they couldn't have known about through normal means.

The life review phenomenon, reported in 70-80% of cases, transcends simple memory. Experiencers describe reliving events from multiple perspectives simultaneously—seeing through their own eyes, the eyes of people they affected, even experiencing the extended ripple effects of their actions. One construction worker reported experiencing not just his cruel words to a coworker, but the man going home upset, arguing with his wife, and his children overhearing—a cascade of consequences he'd never imagined.

Perhaps most challenging to materialist explanations is the transformation that follows. University of Connecticut research found that 80-90% of NDErs show permanent positive personality changes: decreased death anxiety, increased compassion, reduced materialism, and enhanced appreciation for life. These aren't subtle shifts—spouses report their partners seem like "completely different people," while experiencers often change careers, relationships, and fundamental values, such as a CEO founding a hospice charity after a heart attack or a nurse shifting to empathy-driven care.

Dr. Bruce Greyson's NDE Scale, used in most academic studies, quantifies these elements scientifically. Scores of 7 or above (out of 32) indicate an NDE, with most experiencers scoring between 15 and 20, facilitating systematic assessment and ensuring that testimonial evidence reflects consistent phenomena rather than random hallucinations or cultural narratives.

Yet these documented patterns generate profound philosophical questions. If NDEs were purely brain-based, why such consistency across ages, cultures, and types of death? Random neural firing should produce random experiences. But if they glimpse objective reality, why any variation at all? The answer likely lies in how we evaluate testimonial evidence—distinguishing raw experience from interpretation, universal elements from cultural expression. This cultural feedback loop—where NDE stories shape beliefs, which in turn shape how new experiences are reported—complicates our evaluation. Philosophy offers tools to separate evidence from expectation.

The remarkable consistency of these NDE patterns, mirroring how everyday testimonials converge to shape our sense of reality, suggests these experiences may reflect something more than random hallucinations. Just as multiple witnesses to a car accident or consistent historical accounts of an event like Julius Caesar’s Rubicon crossing help us reconstruct what happened, the uniformity of NDE reports across ages, cultures, and beliefs invites us to consider their potential as glimpses of an objective phenomenon. Yet, determining whether this consistency points to veridical experiences requires rigorous evaluation, using the same epistemological tools we apply to other domains of knowledge. We’ll explore these tools in the chapters ahead, ensuring a fair and systematic inquiry into what NDEs reveal about consciousness.

Common Misconceptions About NDEs

Before delving further, it's worth addressing some common misconceptions that often cloud discussions of NDEs, as these highlight how worldviews can predetermine conclusions. One frequent dismissal is that NDEs are merely hallucinations triggered by a dying brain, akin to dreams or drug-induced visions. While it's true that oxygen deprivation or neural surges can produce vivid imagery, this explanation falters against veridical elements, such as specific, corroborated details like Pam Reynolds' accurate description of surgical tools she couldn't have seen. If these were random hallucinations, why are there consistent patterns across individuals, and why do they include information verifiable by third parties? This misconception often stems from assuming consciousness is strictly brain-bound, a premise that begs the question rather than engaging the evidence.

Another myth is that NDEs are purely cultural constructs, shaped by religious upbringing or media exposure. Skeptics point to variations, such as hellish interpretations in some Christian accounts, as proof of subjectivity. Yet, the core features (out-of-body travel, radiant light, life reviews) persist across cultures with no shared media influence, from isolated indigenous groups to atheists expecting oblivion. Children too young for cultural conditioning report similar elements, such as meeting deceased relatives they never knew existed, later identified from family photos. This suggests a universal human experience filtered through cultural lenses, not invented by them.

A third misconception is that NDEs lack scientific credibility because they can't be replicated in labs. But testimonial evidence underpins much of our knowledge—eyewitness accounts in history, patient reports in medicine, or even quantum observations relying on researcher testimony. Demanding lab proof for NDEs applies a double standard; we'd dismiss much of history (like the signing of the Magna Carta) if held to the same criterion. Instead, the volume and consistency of reports warrant serious inquiry, much like how epidemiology studies patterns in patient testimonies without recreating diseases.

These misconceptions reveal selective skepticism: we trust testimony in everyday domains but raise the bar for paradigm-challenging claims. Recognizing this bias is crucial for neutral evaluation, as it prevents preconceptions from overshadowing the evidence we'll explore in depth later.

Philosophy as the Foundation of Inquiry

This book offers a different approach to near-death experiences. You won't find dozens of new NDE testimonies here—there are already plenty of books that provide those. Nor will you find attempts to explain away these experiences through brain chemistry or oxygen deprivation—that ground has been well-covered. Instead, you'll find a systematic examination of how we evaluate testimonial evidence and what we can legitimately conclude when we apply rigorous standards to the thousands of NDE reports already available.

Most NDE books fall into predictable categories: collections of amazing stories meant to inspire, medical attempts to explain them away, or religious interpretations that assume their truth. Each approach has value but also built-in limitations. Story collections move us, but don't help us evaluate reliability. Medical explanations often assume what they need to prove, that consciousness equals brain activity. Religious interpretations typically select evidence that confirms predetermined beliefs.

What's missing is a genuinely neutral investigation, one that neither assumes NDEs are glimpses of the afterlife nor dismisses them as dying brain phenomena. This requires examining the testimonial evidence with the same rigor we'd apply to any important knowledge claim, whether in science, law, or history. It means developing clear criteria for when testimony provides genuine knowledge versus mere anecdote.

The philosophical tools for this investigation already exist. Epistemologists have spent decades analyzing when and why testimony works as a source of knowledge. Philosophers of mind have developed sophisticated frameworks for understanding consciousness that go beyond simple brain-equals-mind equations. Logicians have created methods for evaluating evidence that avoid common fallacies of both believers and skeptics.

Many people mistakenly believe that if science hasn't confirmed something, we cannot claim to know it. This assumption, sometimes called scientism, is itself a philosophical position that needs justification. Science relies on the same testimonial evidence, logical inference, and sensory experience we use in everyday life; it simply applies these tools more rigorously. Our deepest convictions about meaning, morality, and relationships transcend purely empirical methods. When we approach NDEs with rigorous philosophical analysis, we're using the best available methods to evaluate questions that purely empirical approaches cannot resolve alone.

This book applies these tools systematically to NDE testimony for the first time. We'll establish what makes some testimonial evidence stronger than others, and why Pam Reynolds' case carries more weight than vague memories of light. We'll examine what can and cannot be concluded from patterns across thousands of accounts.


The Power and Limits of Testimony

There are at least five primary paths to knowledge (justified true belief): linguistic training (learning what words mean), pure reason (mathematical and logical truths), sensory experience, testimony from others, and inference through argument (logic). Each represents a legitimate route to understanding, yet testimony, despite being socially essential, is often undervalued when it challenges our worldview.

Consider what you know through testimony alone: that you were born on a certain date, that Antarctica exists, that DNA carries genetic information. You've likely never verified these claims independently, yet you'd be thought foolish to doubt them. We generally trust the testimony of historians about ancient Rome, physicists about quantum mechanics, and doctors about our internal organs, none of which we can directly observe.

Yet when someone reports a near-death experience, many suddenly demand standards of proof they apply nowhere else. This selective skepticism reveals more about our philosophical commitments than about the reliability of testimony itself. A neuroscientist who accepts colleagues' reports about brain scans may reject patient reports about consciousness during cardiac arrest, not because one form of testimony is inherently superior, but because one challenges their worldview while the other confirms it.

The fundamental issue isn't whether NDE testimonies are true or false, but whether we're applying consistent standards. If we accept testimony about the age of the universe (13.8 billion years) or the existence of black holes, both beyond direct verification, why not testimony about experiences during clinical death? The answer lies not in the testimony itself but in our prior assumptions about what's possible. This doesn't mean all testimony is equal. Courts have developed sophisticated methods for evaluating witness reliability, historians have criteria for assessing ancient sources, and scientists have peer review. What we need are similarly rigorous standards for evaluating NDE testimony, standards that neither dismiss these claims reflexively nor accept them uncritically.

Why This Matters Now: The Stakes of the Investigation

The possibility that consciousness persists beyond bodily death carries profound implications for how we understand identity, ethics, and the nature of existence. If NDEs indicate an independent consciousness, they challenge fundamental assumptions about human nature, demanding a reevaluation of how we approach life, death, and societal values. Medically, NDE research suggests that awareness may persist during clinical death, prompting significant changes in practice, revising EMS protocols to account for potential consciousness during resuscitation emphasizes respectful treatment of patients. Compassionate care informed by NDE insights notes that patients often report heightened awareness during critical procedures.

Psychologically, NDEs have transformative effects, with 80-90% of experiencers reporting reduced death anxiety, heightened compassion, and altruistic shifts. Take the CEO who, after a heart attack NDE, founded a hospice charity, or the nurse who shifted from routine procedures to empathy-driven care. Such changes hint at untapped psychological potential, challenging therapies that view death anxiety as inevitable.

Religiously, NDEs challenge dogmatic narratives, particularly those centered on eternal punishment. Non-judgmental life reviews and overwhelmingly positive experiences contradict traditional notions of divine judgment, fostering interfaith dialogue around shared themes of compassion.

The Journey Ahead

The testimonies of NDEs present us with a profound challenge. Thousands of people from different cultures, ages, and backgrounds report strikingly similar experiences during clinical death, experiences that shouldn't be possible if consciousness is merely brain activity.

This book will navigate between naive acceptance and dogmatic dismissal, using philosophical tools to evaluate what we can legitimately conclude. We'll examine the epistemology of testimony, analyze the language experiencers use, and we'll apply the same standards we use in science, law, detective work, and history to understand what NDEs reveal about consciousness, existence, and human values.

The question isn't simply whether NDEs are "real, "a term that itself needs philosophical analysis, but what they can teach us about the nature of mind, the limits of current scientific paradigms, and the possibility that consciousness might be more than neurons firing in the dark. By journey's end, you'll have the tools to evaluate not just NDEs but any domain where human testimony provides our primary access to important phenomena.

The investigation begins with a simple recognition: we're all already philosophers, making assumptions about consciousness, knowledge, and reality every day. The choice is whether to examine these assumptions consciously or let them silently determine what we're willing to see. In the pages that follow, we'll make that examination explicit, rigorous, and fair, wherever the evidence may lead.

My use of JTB isn't traditional; it's tied to Wittgenstein's language games and his thinking on "hinges" in OC. I wrote a paper recently that addresses some of these problems, here's the link: https://thephilosophyforum.com/discussion/comment/995416

A word about defining consciousness.

Consciousness isn't a definable object or property, but a grammatical background (grammar in a Wittgensteinian sense), a requirement for the possibility of thought, language, and knowledge.

It's not something we know about, but something we presuppose in all knowing. Like Wittgenstein's hinge propositions, consciousness is not justified by evidence but functions as an unspoken certainty that underlies our epistemic and linguistic practices.

Its meaning doesn't emerge from some strict definition, but from a network of overlapping uses, what Wittgenstein would call a family resemblance concept

This view is contrary to both reductive physicalism and metaphysical idealism, not by denying the reality of consciousness, but by refusing to treat it as an object within the system of knowledge. Instead, consciousness is more akin to what Wittgenstein called a condition of sense, something that does not appear in our representations of the world but is presupposed by the act of representing itself. In this way, to search for a definition of consciousness is to misunderstand its role: it isn't a fact among facts, but the logical space in which facts become meaningful. Like the rules of a game that cannot be played without them, consciousness is both indispensable and typically unnoticed, except when we're having this kind of discussion.

No, I haven't published, but if you go back and look at my thread 'On Certainty', you'll see that I mentioned this about a year ago.

I don't always respond to every challenge or question because I just don't have the time. Right now, I'm working on a book on NDEs, so that occupies my time.

It's worth noting that Wittgenstein disagreed with Gödel's incompleteness theorem (although apparently because he misunderstood it).

From Remarks on the Foundations of Mathematics:

I imagine someone asking my advice; he says: "I have constructed a proposition (I will use 'P' to designate it) in Russell's symbolism, and by means of certain definitions and transformations it can be so interpreted that it says: 'P is not provable in Russell's system'. Must I not say that this proposition on the one hand is true, and on the other hand unprovable? For suppose it were false; then it is true that it is provable. And that surely cannot be! And if it is proved, then it is proved that it is not provable. Thus it can only be true, but unprovable." Just as we can ask, " 'Provable' in what system?," so we must also ask, "'True' in what system?" "True in Russell's system" means, as was said, proved in Russell's system, and "false" in Russell's system means the opposite has been proved in Russell's system.—Now, what does your "suppose it is false" mean? In the Russell sense it means, "suppose the opposite is proved in Russell's system"; if that is your assumption you will now presumably give up the interpretation that it is unprovable. And by "this interpretation" I understand the translation into this English sentence.—If you assume that the proposition is provable in Russell's system, that means it is true in the Russell sense, and the interpretation "P is not provable" again has to be given up. If you assume that the proposition is true in the Russell sense, the same thing follows. Further: if the proposition is supposed to be false in some other than the Russell sense, then it does not contradict this for it to be proved in Russell's system. (What is called "losing" in chess may constitute winning in another game.) — Michael

Wittgenstein was skeptical of Gödel’s theorem, and it seems that the disagreement, as far as I understand, was largely due to what appears to be a misunderstanding of the distinction between provability within a system and truth in the standard interpretation.

However, the structural parallel is valid regardless of Wittgenstein’s views of Gödel. I’m not claiming that Wittgenstein endorsed this connection. I’m just making an independent philosophical observation about structural similarities in foundational limits.

One could say that Wittgenstein’s objection supports my broader point, viz., his insistence that we must ask “True in what system?” and “Provable in what system?” which seems to support the idea that systematic frameworks require external grounding. He argues that truth and provability are always relative to a particular system, and this aligns with my argument about the necessity of external foundations.

Regardless of how this is interpreted, my paper shows that they were both concerned with the same foundational question, i.e., how do systematic frameworks relate to what lies outside them?

Thanks for the reply.

The connection could easily have been made by AI. Indeed, any author can now claim a 'new' find after using a prompt and conversing with AI.

This is not to suggest that the author relied on such. It is clear that he has given his all to the project.
This is what many think philosophy is all about.
I hope that this event has shown otherwise. It can be this and much, much more. — Amity

I don't think AI could have made such a connection. I made this connection more than a year ago, possibly longer, and the AI available at the time surely couldn't have made the connection between Wittgenstein and Godel.

I can see the structural parallel. There's a part of me that still wonders: Why this particular set of parallels? My first guess is that in two disciplines in which complicated thought is required we find a common between Godel and Wittgenstein, and that particular combination is persuasive of a larger structure in thinking that must be -- namely that there will be truths that are not grounded at the same level within any sufficiently "complicated"* body of -- knowledge?

*Whatever that is cached out as

I can see the analogy, but it's the part that I think could really sell the argument home -- not just a strong analogy, but even a reason to bring these people together due to the structure of thought, or something like that. Somehow strengthening the tie between the two examples.

Still, I say that in an attempt to be helpful, and your essay far surpasses my little comments on it. Thanks for your submission! — Moliere

Both Wittgenstein and Gödel were investigating questions related to completeness. Wittgenstein was asking whether epistemic practices could be completely self-justifying, and Gödel was asking whether formal systems could be completely self-proving. Both men discovered that the answer was no, and both showed that this isn’t a defect to be solved but a structural necessity. These ideas solve the problem of infinite regression and the problem of circularity.

The "why these two" question has a deeper answer, viz., they represent the most rigorous investigations into foundational questions in their respective domains, and it’s during the same historical period. Wittgenstein was examining the foundations of ordinary knowledge and language, while Gödel was examining the foundations of the most rigorous knowledge we possess (mathematics). That they independently discovered analogous structural limits suggests this isn't domain-specific but reveals something about the structure of systematic thought itself.

As far as I can tell, no one else has made this connection, but who knows? The paper demonstrates this isn’t just about “complicated” systems needing ungrounded elements, but about the logical structure of any system that strives for internal coherence. Even simple systems, if they’re to be complete and self-justifying, will encounter such limits.

The Wittgenstein-Gödel parallel reveals a universal logical constraint, viz., any systematic framework that attempts to ground all its statements internally will necessarily rely on elements that lie beyond its internal capacity for justification. The parallel is compelling precisely because it shows this constraint operating across the most fundamental domains of human understanding.

Much of this has little to do with OC.

If there are variable language games, are there also variable human forms of life that play those games, or is there but one? — Hanover

Wittgenstein’s form of life refers to shared practices, behaviors, and instinctive foundations that make meaning possible, and this is true whether cultural (like rituals) or universal (like pain reactions). These forms of life give rise to distinct language games, viz., rule-governed and flexible ways of speaking within these activities (e.g., science, chess, or humor). Forms of life vary across cultures and domains; it’s crucial to stress that not all are rigidly rule-bound; some are organic (e.g., grieving), and boundaries often blur. There is no single, overarching form of life for Wittgenstein. I believe he rejects the idea of a universal logic or framework underpinning all language and meaning. Instead, meaning emerges from multiple and diverse forms of life, each with its own internal rules or norms. For instance, the language games of religious belief and scientific proof operate differently, with no master form to reconcile them. While overlaps exist (e.g., counting in math and carpentry), these practices resist being flattened into one system. I guess you could say the key takeaway is pluralism: meaning is always local, grounded in the practical and contextual ways we live and speak.

I have some general ideas, but right now I'm trying to finish a book I'm working on.

I'm not sure what you mean by "...there can be nothing in common between the various language games." Your second point "...that not all language games involve justification" is true, but all language games involving knowledge claims do involve some sort of justification (logic, linguistic training, sensory experience, testimony, etc.). Unless you mean there are uses of the word knowledge that aren't epistemological, then I agree.

Thanks.

What I would like to do is develop an epistemology based on JTB, but with a Wittgensteinian twist - for example, demonstrating how our methods of justification apply across various language games within our form of life.

I decided to put my paper in this thread where it belongs. The paper tends to be a bit more precise than my general comments in this thread and elsewhere, which is why it's important to write down one's thoughts using more precise language. The area where my paper falls short is in not responding to potential criticisms.

Wittgenstein's Hinges and Gödel's Unprovable Statements
By: @Sam26
Abstract

In Ludwig Wittgenstein's final notes, published posthumously as On Certainty (1969), Wittgenstein introduces the concept of hinge propositions as foundational certainties that lie beyond justification and doubt (OC 341-343). These certainties support our language-games and epistemic practices, offering a distinctive perspective on knowledge that challenges traditional epistemology's demand for universal justification. I argue for a structural parallel between Wittgenstein's hinges and Gödel's 1931 incompleteness theorems, demonstrating that consistent mathematical systems contain true statements that cannot be proven within those systems. Both thinkers uncover fundamental limits to internal justification: Wittgenstein shows that epistemic systems rest on unjustified certainties embedded in our form of life, while Gödel proves that mathematical systems require axioms that cannot be demonstrated within the system itself. Rather than representing failures of reasoning, these ungrounded foundations serve as necessary conditions that make systematic inquiry possible. This parallel suggests that foundational certainties enable rather than undermine knowledge, pointing to a universal structural feature of how such systems must be grounded. This analysis has implications for reconsidering the nature of certainty across epistemology and the philosophy of mathematics.

Introduction
We often perform actions without hesitation, such as sitting on a chair or picking up a pencil, without questioning the existence of either. This unthinking action illustrates Wittgenstein's concept of a hinge proposition, a fundamental certainty that supports our use of language and epistemological language-games. Wittgenstein compares hinge propositions to the hinges that enable a door to function; these certainties provide the underlying support for the structures of language and knowledge, remaining unaffected by the need for justification.

Wittgenstein's hinges bear a remarkable resemblance to Gödel's incompleteness theorems, revealing unprovable mathematical statements. This resemblance points to deeper questions about how both domains handle foundational issues. Both Wittgenstein and Gödel uncover limits to internal justification, a connection I will examine.

Traditional epistemology often misinterprets hinges by forcing them into a true/false propositional role, neglecting their foundational status embedded in our epistemic form of life. These bedrock assumptions precede argument or evidence, forming the foundational elements of our epistemic practices. Similarly, Gödel's incompleteness theorems showed that any consistent arithmetic system contains true statements unprovable within the system and cannot demonstrate its own consistency.

This connection is significant because it highlights the boundary between what counts as bedrock for epistemic and mathematical systems. Both rest on certainties that lie beyond justification, certainties that are not flaws in reasoning but necessary foundations that make knowledge claims possible. This paper argues that ungrounded certainties enable knowledge, rather than undermining it, and that hinges and Gödel's unprovable statements serve a similar purpose. By examining the parallels between Wittgenstein and Gödel, particularly the role of unprovable foundations and the need for external grounding, this paper sheds light on the nature of certainty in our understanding of both epistemology and mathematics.

Section 1: Hinges and Their Foundational Role

Wittgenstein's concept of hinge propositions is crucial to his thinking, particularly in the context of epistemology. In On Certainty, Wittgenstein introduces the idea of hinges as certainties that ground our epistemic practices. While Wittgenstein never explicitly distinguishes types of hinges, his examples suggest a distinction between nonlinguistic and linguistic varieties, revealing different levels of fundamental certainties.

Nonlinguistic hinges represent the most basic level of certainty, bedrock assumptions that ground our actions and interactions with the world. These are not expressed as propositions subject to justification or doubt but embodied in unreflective action. For instance, the certainty that the ground will support us when we walk is a nonlinguistic hinge that enables movement without hesitation. Similarly, our unthinking confidence that objects will behave predictably, that chairs will hold our weight, that pencils will mark paper, represents this bedrock level of certainty. These hinges operate beneath the level of articulation, forming the silent background against which all conscious thought and language become possible.

Building upon this bedrock foundation, linguistic hinges operate at a more articulated but less fundamental level. These are certainties embedded within our language-games and cultural practices, often taking the form of basic statements like "I have two hands" or "The Earth exists." Unlike nonlinguistic hinges, these can be spoken and seem propositional, yet they resist the usual patterns of justification and doubt. Other examples include statements such as "I am a human being" or "The world has existed for a long time," assertions that appear to convey information but function more as structural supports for discourse than as ordinary claims requiring evidence.

These two types of hinges show how certainty operates at different levels in grounding knowledge. Nonlinguistic hinges form the deepest stratum, revealing the unquestioned backdrop that makes any form of questioning possible. Linguistic hinges, while still foundational, represent a layer above bedrock that anchors shared discourse within specific contexts. Both types resist justification, but their resistance stems from different sources: nonlinguistic hinges from their pre-rational embodiment in action, linguistic hinges from their structural role within our language-games.

Wittgenstein breaks with traditional epistemology here. Rather than viewing these certainties as beliefs requiring justification, he recognizes them as the ungrounded ground that makes justification itself possible. He notes, "There is no why. I simply do not. This is how I act" (OC 148). Doubting these hinges would collapse the very framework within which doubt makes sense, like attempting to saw off the branch on which one sits.

A crucial distinction emerges between subjective and objective dimensions of these certainties. While our relationship to hinges involves unquestioning acceptance, this certainty is not merely psychological. These assumptions are shaped by our interactions with a world that both constrains and enables our practices. The certainty reflected in our actions has an objective component, as it emerges from our shared engagement with reality and proves itself through the successful functioning of our practices.

This interpretation of hinges as operating at different foundational levels finds support in recent Wittgenstein scholarship, though it diverges from some prominent readings. Danièle Moyal-Sharrock argues that hinges are fundamentally non-propositional, existing as lived certainties rather than beliefs or knowledge claims (Moyal-Sharrock 2004). While my distinction between nonlinguistic and linguistic hinges aligns with her emphasis on the embodied, pre-propositional character of our most basic certainties, I suggest that some hinges do function at a more articulated level within language-games, even if they resist standard justification patterns.

Duncan Pritchard's interpretation emphasizes hinges as commitment-constituting rather than knowledge-constituting, arguing they represent a distinct epistemic category that enables rather than constitutes knowledge (Pritchard 2016). This view supports the parallel with Gödel's axioms: both hinges and mathematical axioms function as enabling commitments that make systematic inquiry possible without themselves being objects of that inquiry. The mathematical case strengthens Pritchard's insight by showing how even formal domains require such commitment-constituting foundations.

This analysis extends beyond epistemology to reveal a striking parallel with Gödel's incompleteness theorems, which demonstrate analogous limits within formal mathematical systems. Just as Gödel showed that mathematical systems rely on axioms that cannot be proven within those systems, Wittgenstein's hinges reveal that epistemic systems rest on certainties that cannot be justified internally. This comparison suggests a fundamental structural limitation in rational grounding, whether in mathematics or human knowledge, and invites reconsideration of what it means for knowledge to be properly grounded.

Section 2: Gödel’s Unprovable Statements as Mathematical Hinges

Gödel's incompleteness theorems, published in 1931, establish fundamental limits within formal systems, revolutionizing our understanding of mathematical foundations. Gödel demonstrated that within any consistent system of arithmetic, there will always be statements that are true under the standard interpretation but cannot be proven within the system itself. For instance, the statement asserting the system's own consistency, a meaningful mathematical claim about the system's properties, cannot be demonstrated within that system, even if the system is indeed consistent. Moreover, no such system can demonstrate its own consistency. Such statements are meaningful propositions with definite truth values that reveal structural limitations inherent to formal systems. This limitation persists even when systems are extended. Adding new axioms to prove previously unprovable truths creates strengthened systems that, if consistent and sufficiently powerful, generate their own sets of true but unprovable statements. The cycle of incompleteness is thus perpetual, revealing not a flaw in particular systems but a structural feature of formal mathematics itself.

This limitation mirrors Wittgenstein's hinges in important ways. Just as hinges are certainties that cannot be justified within the epistemic systems they support, Gödel's results show that mathematical systems require axiomatic starting points that cannot be proven within those systems. The Peano axioms, which establish the foundation for arithmetic, exemplify this necessity. These axioms are not accepted because they are provable; they cannot be proven within the systems they generate. Rather, they are adopted as systematic starting points that enable mathematical development, chosen because they make possible coherent, productive systems.

The parallel extends to the necessity of external acceptance. Gödel's systems require axioms accepted from outside the formal system itself, while Wittgenstein's hinges are certainties not arrived at through investigation but accepted as part of our form of life (OC 138). In both cases, what enables the system lies beyond the system's internal capacity for justification. Mathematical axioms and epistemic hinges both function as ungrounded grounds, foundational elements that make systematic inquiry possible precisely because they are not themselves subject to the forms of scrutiny they enable.

Yet there is an important difference here: mathematical axioms are typically chosen for their elegance, consistency, and power to generate interesting mathematics, while hinges appear more embedded in contingent cultural and biological practices. Yet this difference strengthens rather than weakens the parallel. If even mathematics, often considered the paradigm of rigorous proof, requires unjustified foundational elements, how much more must everyday understanding rely on unexamined certainties? The universality of this structural requirement across domains as different as formal mathematics and lived experience suggests a fundamental feature of how systems of thought must be organized.

Both domains thus reveal that functioning without such foundational elements is implausible. Mathematical systems risk incoherence without axiomatic starting points, just as epistemic practices risk collapse without the bedrock certainties that Wittgenstein identifies. The parallel illuminates a shared structural necessity: systematic thought requires ungrounded foundations that enable rather than undermine the possibility of reasoning within those systems.

Section 3: Beyond Internal Justification: A Cross-Domain Analysis

Both Wittgenstein and Gödel reveal that justification operates within boundaries, where certain elements serve as foundations that cannot be further justified within their respective systems. Both thinkers expose a basic structural feature of systematic thought: the impossibility of a complete system of justification in either domain.

Traditional approaches to knowledge often assume that proper justification requires tracing claims back to secure foundations that are themselves justified. This assumption generates the classical problem of infinite regress: any attempt to justify foundational elements through further reasoning creates an endless chain of justification that never reaches secure ground. Both Wittgenstein's hinges and Gödel's axioms reveal why this demand for complete internal justification is not merely difficult but impossible in principle.

As Wittgenstein observes, "There is no why. I simply do not. This is how I act" (OC 148). This insight captures something crucial about the nature of foundational certainties: they are pre-rational in the sense that they precede and enable rational discourse rather than emerging from it. Hinges are not conclusions we reach through reasoning but lived realities that make reasoning possible. Similarly, mathematical axioms are not theorems we prove but starting points we adopt to make proof possible.

There is an important difference between these domains. Hinges emerge from contingent practices embedded in particular forms of life, while mathematical axioms are selected through systematic considerations within formal contexts. Hinges reflect the biological and cultural circumstances of human existence, whereas axioms reflect choices made for their mathematical power and elegance. If anything, this difference makes the parallel more compelling by demonstrating its scope: if even the most rigorous formal disciplines require unjustified starting points, the necessity of such foundations in everyday knowledge becomes even more apparent.

This cross-domain similarity reveals what appears to be a universal structural requirement. Systems of thought, whether formal mathematical theories or practical epistemic frameworks, cannot achieve complete self-justification. They require external elements that are not justified within the system but make systematic inquiry within that framework possible. Rather than representing failures or limitations, these unjustified foundations function as enabling conditions that make coherent thought and practice possible.

Recognizing this structural necessity transforms how we understand the relationship between certainty and knowledge. Instead of viewing unjustified elements as epistemological problems to be solved, we can understand them as necessary features that allow knowledge systems to function. Both mathematical proof and everyday understanding depend on foundations that lie beyond their internal capacity for justification, yet this dependence enables rather than undermines their respective forms of systematic inquiry.

Conclusion

I have argued for a fundamental parallel between Wittgenstein's hinges and Gödel's incompleteness results: both demonstrate that systematic thought requires ungrounded foundations. By examining how epistemic and mathematical systems share this structural feature, we gain insight into the nature of foundational certainties across domains of human understanding.

The parallel between these seemingly distinct philosophical insights suggests that the limits of internal justification are not accidental features of particular systems but necessary conditions for systematic thought. Recognizing this gives us a more realistic picture of how knowledge actually functions, not through endless chains of justification reaching some ultimate ground, but through practices and formal systems that rest on foundations lying beyond their internal scope.

Rather than viewing these limits as philosophical problems requiring solutions, this analysis suggests embracing them as structural necessities that make knowledge possible. Wittgenstein's hinges ground our epistemic practices in the lived realities of human existence, while Gödel's axioms ground mathematical systems in choices that prove their worth through the coherent theories they generate. Both reveal that the search for completely self-grounding systems is not merely difficult but misconceived.

I believe this perspective has broader implications for understanding certainty and knowledge. It suggests that the interplay between grounded and ungrounded elements is not a flaw in human reasoning but a fundamental feature of how systematic understanding must be structured. By recognizing this necessity, we can develop more nuanced approaches to foundational questions in epistemology, philosophy of mathematics, and potentially other domains where the relationship between systematic inquiry and its enabling conditions remains philosophically significant.




References

Gödel, K. (1931). Über formal unentscheidbare Sätze der Principia Mathematica und verwandter Systeme I. Monatshefte für Mathematik und Physik, 38, 173-198.

Moyal-Sharrock, D. (2004). Understanding Wittgenstein's On Certainty. Palgrave Macmillan.

Pritchard, D. (2016). Epistemic Angst: Radical Skepticism and the Groundlessness of Our Believing. Princeton University Press.

Wittgenstein, L. (1969). On Certainty (G. E. M. Anscombe & G. H. von Wright, Eds.; D. Paul & G. E. M. Anscombe, Trans.). Basil Blackwell.

Thank you for one of the best replies I've ever gotten in this Forum. It's really great when somebody understands my points. Here are some comments that hopefully forward this good discussion. — ssu

Thanks @ssu for the compliment. There are some really interesting ideas to pursue in these posts, especially as they relate to my interest in epistemology. I'm not a mathematician, but I did manage to see a connection between Wittgenstein and Godel. I've been trying to find other writings that've made a similar connection, but I haven't been able to find anything.

I have to move on to answering some of the other replies to my paper, but your responses were interesting.

Everything is about objectivity and subjectivity, actually. It's not merely a psychological issue, but simply logical. We can easily understand subjectivity as someone's (or some things) point of view and objectivity as "a view without a viewpoint". To put this into a logical and mathematical context makes it a bit different. Here both Gödel and Wittgenstein are extremely useful.

In logic and math a true statement that is objective can be computed and ought to be provable. Yet when it's subjective, this isn't so: something subjective refers to itself.

Do note the self-referential aspect Gödel's incompleteness theorems, even if Gödel smartly avoids direct circular reference of Russell's Paradox. Yet I would argue that Wittgenstein observes this even in the Tractatus Logicus Philosophicus as he thinks about Russell's paradox: — ssu

Thank you for the thought-provoking response. Your subjective-objective distinction, self-referentiality, and the market pricing example adds to the discussion, and they challenge my claim about ungrounded foundations. Let me see if I can clarify my argument and explore the points you raise.

You rightly emphasize the subjective-objective distinction in the context of Wittgenstein’s hinges and Gödel’s incompleteness theorems, framing subjectivity as tied to self-referentiality and objectivity as a “view without a viewpoint.” I find this interesting, particularly your point that objective truths in logic and math are typically computable and provable, while subjective ones involve self-reference, evading such formalization. Your reference to Wittgenstein’s Tractatus (3.332–3.333) and his solution to Russell’s paradox is spot-on: Wittgenstein identifies self-referentiality as a source of logical trouble, arguing that propositions or functions cannot contain themselves. This insight resonates with Gödel’s incompleteness theorems, which, as you note, cleverly navigate self-referentiality (e.g., the statement “This statement is unprovable in the system”) without falling into the traps of Russell’s paradox.

Here I think it's very important to understand just what is objective and what is subjective in this context. An objective model can is true when it models reality correctly and can be written as a function like y = F(x). But what then would be a subjective model, that couldn't be put into the above objective mold?

Let's take one example. Let's assume that the market pricing mechanism is dependent on the aggregate actions of all market participants. This obviously is true: trade at some price happens only when there is at least one participant willing to sell at the price and at least one willing to buy with the similar price. At first this looks quite objective and we can write as a mathematical function like y = F(X). But then, if we want to use this model, let's say to forecast what prices are going to be in the future and then participate in the market, this isn't anymore an objective function. Now actually the function is defining itself, which as Wittgenstein observed, cannot contain itself. Us using the function is self-referential, because the model is the aggregate of all market participants actions, including us. How are we deciding our actions? Because of the function itself. — ssu

Your market pricing example is an interesting example of how self-referentiality complicates objective modeling. When a model of market prices incorporates the actions of everyone, including the modeler’s own decisions based on the model, it becomes self-referential, undermining objectivity. This aligns with Wittgenstein’s thinking in that certain propositions (or models) cannot contain themselves without losing their coherence. It also echoes my paper’s broader point: systems of thought, whether epistemic or mathematical, often rely on foundational elements that resist internal justification. In your market e.g., the “hinge” might be the assumption that prices reflect aggregate behavior, but using the model to act within the market introduces a self-referential loop that defies objective grounding (if I understand what you're saying), which is akin to the unprovable truths in Gödel’s systems or the unquestioned certainties in Wittgenstein’s hinges.

However, I should clarify the paper’s claim about “ungrounded foundations” in light of your critique that not all systematic thought lacks grounded foundations. My paper argues that both Wittgenstein’s hinges and Gödel’s incompleteness reveal a structural necessity: systematic thought (in sufficiently complex epistemic or mathematical systems) requires foundational elements that cannot be justified within the system itself. This doesn’t mean all foundations are ungrounded in an absolute sense, but that their grounding lies outside the system’s internal justificatory framework. For Wittgenstein, hinges are grounded in our “form of life,” i.e., in our shared practices and interactions with reality, but they resist justification through argument or evidence within the epistemic system they support. For Gödel, axioms (like those of Peano arithmetic) are grounded in their mathematical fruitfulness or intuitive plausibility, but they cannot be proven within the system they define. The “ungrounded” part refers to this internal limit, not a denial of external grounding (e.g., in practice, intuition, or objective reality for Gödel’s Platonism).

If I understand correctly what you mean by grounded / ungrounded foundations, I would say it differently: Not all systematic thought can be brought back to grounded foundations. Usually we can use axiomatic systems and get an objective model, but not always.

Just as there is also Gödel's completeness theorem, that theorem doesn't collide with the two incompleteness theorems. — ssu

Your point, that “not all systematic thought can be brought back to grounded foundations,” is a helpful perspective, but I’d argue it complements rather than contradicts the my claim. The paper doesn’t assert that all thought lacks grounded foundations, but that sufficiently complex systems (epistemic or mathematical) require ungrounded foundations within their own justificatory scope. Simpler systems, like those covered by Gödel’s completeness theorem or basic linguistic practices, may achieve internal grounding, but that the parallel with Wittgenstein and Gödel emerges in domains where complexity has limits, necessitating external or unprovable foundations.

Your market example actually strengthens my point. The self-referential nature of the pricing model mirrors the way hinges and unprovable statements function as enabling conditions that cannot be fully justified within the system. Just as a market participant’s actions disrupt the objectivity of the pricing function, hinges and axioms enable systematic thought by standing outside the system’s justificatory reach. This suggests that the subjective-objective interplay you highlight is not just a logical issue but a structural feature of how systems, whether markets, math, or knowledge, must be organized.

Finally, your insights about self-referentiality and the subjective-objective distinction enrich the paper’s framework, and your market example vividly illustrates the challenges of grounding complex systems. While Gödel’s completeness theorem reminds us that not all systems face incompleteness, the parallel with Wittgenstein’s hinges holds for systems where internal justification hits a limit, revealing the necessity of ungrounded foundations.

Thank you for this well-presented OP. While I agree that Godel’s incompleteness theorems can lend themselves to the assumption of groundless grounds akin to Wittgenstein ‘hinges’, I don’t believe Godel would have been comfortable with such a relativistic, pragmatist conclusion. He considered himself a mathematical platonist. As Roger Penrose says about Godel:

Godel, himself, was a very strong Platonist…
The notion of mathematical truth goes beyond the whole concept of formalism. There is something absolute and "God-given' about mathematical truth. This is what mathematical Platonism, as discussed at the end of the last chapter, is about. Any particular formal system has a provisional and 'man-made' quality about it. Such systems indeed have very valuable roles to play in mathematical discussions, but they can supply only a partial (or approximate) guide to truth. Real mathematical truth goes beyond mere manmade constructions. (The Emperor’s New Mind) — Joshs

Thank you for your response and for highlighting Gödel’s Platonism, which is a crucial aspect of his philosophical framework. I agree that Gödel, as a mathematical Platonist, believed in the absolute, objective reality of mathematical truths, existing independently of human constructions or formal systems, as Penrose notes. This view contrasts with a more contingent, practice-enabled nature of Wittgenstein’s hinges, which are grounded in our form of life and seem to carry a relativistic or pragmatist flavor. However, the parallel I propose between Gödel’s unprovable statements and Wittgenstein’s hinges focuses on the structural similarity as opposed to a complete philosophical alignment.

The key connection is how both thinkers reveal the necessity of ungrounded foundations within their respective systems. Gödel’s incompleteness theorems show that any consistent formal system of arithmetic requires axioms or truths that cannot be proven within that system, pointing to a limit of internal justification. Similarly, Wittgenstein’s hinges are basic beliefs that lie beyond justification or doubt, enabling our epistemic practices. While Gödel might have resisted the idea that these mathematical grounds are merely pragmatic or contingent (as hinges might appear in Wittgenstein’s framework), the structural parallel holds: both systems depend on foundational elements that are not internally justifiable but are necessary for the system to function.

Gödel’s Platonism suggests that unprovable truths, like the consistency of a system, exist in a realm of absolute mathematical reality, accessible perhaps through intuition or external perspectives (e.g., a stronger system). Wittgenstein, by contrast, sees hinges as embedded in our lived practices, not as absolute truths but as practical certainties that make inquiry possible. The paper doesn’t claim Gödel would endorse Wittgenstein’s pragmatism but argues that the incompleteness theorems and hinge propositions both expose a universal feature of systematic thought: the need for ungrounded starting points. This structural necessity persists whether one views those foundations as “God-given” (Gödel) or as contingent features of human practice (Wittgenstein).

In short, while Gödel’s Platonism might make him somewhat wary of relativistic or pragmatist readings, the parallel with Wittgenstein’s hinges highlights a shared insight into the limits of formal and epistemic systems. This comparison enriches our understanding of foundational certainties, showing how they function across domains, even if their metaphysical status differs.

This response acknowledges Gödel’s Platonism and the critic’s concern, clarifying that the paper’s parallel is structural, not ontological. It defends the comparison by emphasizing the shared necessity of ungrounded foundations, while respecting the philosophical differences between Gödel and Wittgenstein, thus engaging the critique constructively without conceding the paper’s core argument.

Thanks for your response @Josh

I'll start by answering a pertinent question from @Vera Mont.

To what end? This is a sincere question: What is it you hope to learn or achieve? — Vera Mont

The paper explores why we can know things at all by connecting two big ideas: Wittgenstein’s notion that our knowledge rests on unquestioned "hinges" (like assuming the ground will hold when we walk) and Gödel’s discovery that even math has true statements it can’t prove within its own rules. The goal isn’t to solve a practical problem like building a bridge, but to understand the foundations of how we think and reason, whether in everyday life or in fields like math and science. By demonstrating that both knowledge and mathematics depend on unprovable starting points, the paper reveals a universal idea, viz., that our systems of understanding require ungrounded foundations to function. This matters because it helps us appreciate the limits and strengths of human reasoning, encouraging a bit of humility about what we can justify and confidence in the systems despite these limits. It’s like mapping the bedrock of thought, not to change how we live day-to-day, but to deepen our grasp of what makes knowledge possible, which can inspire clearer thinking in any field, from philosophy to science to ethics.

Thanks,
Sam26

Those kinds of experiences are not unusual. Get better!

Hope you're feeling better Jack.

I tried to do something no one has done before with Wittgenstein's hinges; whether I accomplished it or not is another question. I can understand why it might be difficult to respond, especially considering no one, as far as I know, has made this connection.

Exactly

Me, write the Wittgenstein essay, that's crazy, I hate Wittgenstein!

Oh, the old “brain's house memory, it’s proven!” chestnut from @Hanover, and @180 Proof’s special pleading accusation. I love it, and I will deal with these criticisms in the book, but let’s have some fun.

First, critics act like consciousness is all figured out, as if the example given earlier in the thread about Pam Reynolds’ pinpoint recall of a bone saw’s weird shape during a flatlined brain (EEG flat, eyes taped shut, and ears blocked) is just a casual Tuesday for brain function. Sure, normally memory is tied to neurons, but NDEs like hers, verified by surgeons (corroborated), mind you, toss your proven fact into a blender. There are millions of NDE accounts across cultures that are consistent and corroborated, which demonstrate much more than seeing Jesus in a cereal bowl or faces in clouds. Random neural farts don’t produce globally verifiable stories.

Then, of course, there’s @180 Proofs special pleading cry, as if I’m waving a magic wand to exempt NDEs from scrutiny. Puh-lease. I’ve laid out, I don’t know how many times, five rock solid criteria – numbers, variety, consistency, corroboration, and firsthand accounts used for NDEs, which are also used in history, courtrooms, and good detective work. Why you would use these sorry excuses for an argument is beyond me. Moreover, to claim that my argument is fallacious by using special pleading is just evidence that you don't know this fallacy, as if repeating it will make it so.

The quip about “seeing faces in clouds” is cute, but NDEs aren’t cloud art. There’s just too much hard data from cross-cultural studies that put the kibosh on this kind of thinking, and frankly, again, show how much these remarks demonstrate a lack of understanding of what’s actually happening.

I assumed that @Hanover would apply equally to my arguments, so l lumped them together. If not, then disregard @Hanover. By the way, I'm making no claims to support Dr Ian Stevenson's arguments.

This strikes me as relevant to identifying who your argument would and wouldn't appeal to. — Relativist

Yes, that's true, but beyond that, I'm trying to solve or answer a fundamental problem about consciousness. Is it just limited to the brain? I believe solving or answering this problem is partly epistemological, partly conceptual, and partly empirical.

If you give it some thought, it very seldom happens that you convince people who are entrenched in their beliefs. This is especially true in politics and religion, but it's also true in the sciences. I try to keep up, for e.g., with the latest quantum physics arguments, and even here people are hardened by a particular theory (e.g., string theory vs loop quantum gravity). So, if I use your point, viz., "...reflect on the fact that you persuaded no one to come closer to your view that there's a spirtual basis for NDEs (the objections explain why)." - as something to consider, or as something that reflects poorly on an argument, then many good arguments would fail. It's something to consider (e.g., psychological causes of beliefs), but it's not something that should stand out as a major factor when it comes to good arguments. Arguments stand or fall on their own merits, period.

I'm not a fan of the word "spiritual" because of its religious connotations. I think reality is just more than what our current physics can explain. Although physics, along with other theories of consciousness, will eventually, I believe, move toward consciousness as being the primary driver of physical reality. All of reality swings on the "hinge" of consciousness.

To be honest, I find the objections in this thread to be very weak, so there's not much to overcome. That said, I do address many of these objections, which are the objections that most people make. They're not new to this thread, that's for sure. I've been studying these objections for between 15 and 20 years, so I've given them their proper attention. My book is different in that it looks at the testimonial evidence from an epistemological angle and demonstrates that although testimonial evidence can be very weak, it can also be very strong.

I have completed the rough draft of my book (ebook), which I'll probably sell on Amazon for $5.99 within the next 90 days. I don't have a confirmed title yet, but I'm working on it. I'll probably post sections of the book in this thread. What makes my book unique is its epistemological foundation.

Of course I agree with Sam26 that a response is found in a treatment of what it is to doubt, along the lines of Wittgenstein's discussion of hinge propositions, but unlike Sam I reject idealism, along with certain sorts of realism, as a false juxtaposition. — Banno

The answers to the questions of this thread aren't dependent on metaphysics. I'm not juxtaposing anything, i.e., the argument is meant to stand on its own. If, on the other hand, someone were to bring in idealism as a way to answer the question, it might add an important layer, but it's not needed. In this respect, I would agree with Banno, but at some point, this agreement would fail, because my ultimate view of reality does involve metaphysical answers. I have no problem keeping these language-games distinct. Moreover, as much as I enjoy Wittgenstein, I depart from him when it comes to the limit of language. Wittgenstein didn't reject the metaphysical, he just thought that what can be said about the metaphysical is senseless (not nonsense, but senseless) because it goes beyond the world, and language is limited to the world.