I propose to discuss the text of my essay.

The contemporary assertion of the dualistic nature of humanity in a spiritual context, positing spirit and body as separate entities, appears to modern individuals as something commonplace, self-evident, and taken for granted. In their popular interpretations, a significant portion of Christian denominations lean toward dualism, viewing the body as a temporary vessel for an immortal spirit, which, after the completion of earthly life, continues to exist independently or is reborn in a new body.

The purpose of this work is to elucidate the source of the self-evident nature of the dualistic approach in Christianity and to explore alternative approaches and hypotheses regarding Christian anthropology.

The methodology of this study employs a comprehensive approach, encompassing a hermeneutical analysis of Scriptures (Old and New Testaments), a historical-critical examination of the development of theological thought, and a comparative analysis of ancient philosophical concepts and their influence on the Christian worldview.

The anthropological concept of the New Testament—the understanding of human nature—is a subject of intense debate among theologians, biblical scholars, and philosophers. To substantiate the dualistic nature (body/spirit), the following biblical sources are traditionally cited:

Matthew 10:28: “Do not fear those who kill the body but cannot kill the soul. Rather fear him who can destroy both soul and body in hell.” At first glance, this verse clearly suggests a distinction between body and soul, pointing to the soul’s independent existence, invulnerable to physical death.
2 Corinthians 5:6–8: “So we are always of good courage. We know that while we are at home in the body we are away from the Lord, for we walk by faith, not by sight. Yes, we are of good courage, and we would rather be away from the body and at home with the Lord.” Here, the Apostle Paul expresses a desire to leave the body to be with the Lord, interpreted as evidence of the spirit’s potential existence apart from the body.
Luke 23:43: The Savior’s words to the thief crucified beside him: “And he said to him, ‘Truly, I say to you, today you will be with me in paradise.’” Proponents of dualism see this as confirmation of the soul’s immediate entry into paradise after death, prior to the general resurrection of bodies.
According to advocates of the view that soul and body exist as independent entities, these passages testify to the independence of spirit and body. On this foundation, subsequent constructs and superstructures concerning the afterlife and posthumous existence are built. However, the primary sources themselves do not fully disclose this content, leaving ample room for interpretation.

Let us consider the matter from a different angle. Christianity emerged within Judaism, in a region where Judaism was the dominant religion. If we view Christianity as a doctrine, its ideas arose either in opposition to or as a development of prevailing Jewish thought (e.g., Jesus’ sermon: “You have heard that it was said… But I say to you, ‘Do not resist the one who is evil’” — Matthew 5:38–39).

In the context of Jewish ideas of the time, the prevailing notion was the unity of human body and soul. In the Old Testament, a person is regarded as a holistic entity (in Hebrew, nephesh, often translated as “soul” but more accurately meaning “living breath,” “person,” or “being,” rather than an immaterial substance). Death was perceived as a disruption of this wholeness. For instance, Genesis 2:7 states: “Then the Lord God formed the man of dust from the ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and the man became a living soul.” Here, “living soul” (nephesh chayyah) does not denote a separate soul but the living human being.

Christianity introduced a revolutionary concept of resurrection at the time. This is a central doctrine of the New Testament, which does not envision the disembodied existence of the soul after death as the ultimate goal but points to the complete restoration of the person, including their corporeality. The doctrine of resurrection, emphasized in texts such as 1 Corinthians 15 and John 5:28–29, speaks precisely of resurrection as the return of the whole person to life. Scripture lacks direct and unambiguous references to the resurrection of the soul alone. It speaks explicitly of the resurrection of the body, as exemplified by Jesus Christ (Luke 24:36–43, where Jesus appears to his disciples in bodily form).

In the context of complete resurrection, the Christian practice of burying the deceased rather than cremating them appears particularly logical. The New Testament inherited the Jewish anthropology of the Old Testament, where a person is a unified whole (nephesh), and death is a temporary disruption to be overcome by resurrection (Daniel 12:2: “And many of those who sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, some to everlasting life, and some to shame and everlasting contempt”). Burial practices, such as those of Jesus (John 19:38–42) and Lazarus (John 11:17–44), reflect this belief, symbolizing the expectation of bodily restoration.

The Apostle Paul, in 1 Corinthians 15:12–14, 42–44, asserts: “Now if Christ is proclaimed as raised from the dead, how can some of you say that there is no resurrection of the dead? But if there is no resurrection of the dead, then not even Christ has been raised… It is sown in corruption, it is raised in incorruption; it is sown in dishonor, it is raised in glory; it is sown in weakness, it is raised in power; it is sown a natural body, it is raised a spiritual body.” Paul’s metaphor of the body as a seed sown in the earth (linked to burial) underscores its transformation, not its abandonment, affirming the body’s role in eternal life. Thus, the claim that dualism is inherent to Christianity appears less than convincing.

But where, then, did the notion of dualism in Christianity originate?

Early Christians anticipated the imminent return of Christ and the resurrection of the dead (1 Thessalonians 4:13–17: “For the Lord himself will descend from heaven with a cry of command, with the voice of an archangel, and with the sound of the trumpet of God. And the dead in Christ will rise first”; Mark 13:30: “Truly, I say to you, this generation will not pass away until all these things take place”). When this did not occur (the so-called “delay of the parousia”—from Greek parousia, “coming”), a theological crisis arose: what happens to the deceased in the interim between death and the anticipated resurrection?

In this regard, the historical context is noteworthy. By the second century, Christianity had spread into the Greco-Roman world, where Platonic dualism prevailed. The idea that the mortal body is merely a temporary vessel for the soul originates with the Greek philosopher Plato. In dialogues such as Phaedo, Plato argued that the soul is immortal and divine, while the body is its prison, the source of all suffering and limitations. The goal of philosophy, according to Plato, is to liberate the soul from the body’s shackles. This doctrine found widespread acceptance in the Hellenistic world.

Early Christian apocrypha, such as the Apocalypse of Peter (late 1st to mid-2nd century), and theologians like Clement of Alexandria (c. 150–c. 215) and Origen (c. 185–c. 254), began emphasizing the immortality of the soul, borrowing Plato’s concept of the body as the soul’s “prison.” Origen, for instance, actively employed Platonic categories to explain Christian doctrines, contributing to the spread of dualistic views. Later, Augustine of Hippo (354–430) solidified dualism in Western Christianity, integrating Platonic ideas into his theology, particularly in City of God (Book XIII). He viewed the body as the lower part of humanity and the soul as the higher, capable of communion with God. This raises the question: did new converts not accept Christianity within the prevailing philosophical framework of their societies, adapting it to existing worldview paradigms?

The above example of Platonism’s infiltration vividly illustrates the philosopher Hans-Georg Gadamer’s teaching on the hermeneutical circle and “prejudices” (Vorurteile). In his work Truth and Method, Gadamer argues that individuals perceive and interpret the world, texts, and doctrines through the lens of their cultural, historical, and personal experience. We always approach understanding with a certain “horizon of prejudices,” which are not negative judgments but rather the conditions that make understanding possible. These “prejudices” (or preliminary judgments) shape our perception.

In this context, it is worth citing an example from modern African Christian churches, such as those in Ethiopia or certain communities in South Africa. Their churches feature icons depicting the Virgin Mary and the Holy Son with black skin. This suggests that believers in these congregations envision the Savior and the Mother of God in accordance with their racial and cultural identity, which may contradict European iconographic canons but does not conflict with Scripture itself. This example demonstrates how cultural context shapes the perception and interpretation of religious imagery, just as the Hellenistic context influenced Christian anthropology.

Returning to the “delay of the parousia” and the need to make sense of the intermediate state of the deceased, the adoption by some Christians of Hellenistic ideas, particularly Platonism’s view of the soul as immortal and independent of the body, appears consistent. Texts such as 2 Corinthians 5:6–8 and Luke 23:43, even if they originally held different meanings in a Jewish context, could easily be interpreted through a dualistic lens, suggesting a temporary disembodied state of the soul.

Early Church Fathers, such as Irenaeus of Lyons (c. 130–202) in his work Against Heresies, emphasized bodily resurrection and the wholeness of humanity, aligning with a monistic anthropology. Irenaeus argued that the body, as part of God’s creation, is redeemed alongside the soul, and that salvation pertains to the entire person, not merely their spirit. He criticized Gnostics who despised matter and the body.

However, as previously noted, by the third century, Origen and others began incorporating Platonic dualism, describing the soul’s intermediate state. This transition confirms the idea of dualism as a later adaptation and synthesis of Christian doctrine with the prevailing philosophical ideas of the era.

Dualism, though entrenched in later Christian tradition and becoming “self-evident” to most believers, relies heavily on philosophical accretions and is less consistent with the original Jewish and early Christian context of the New Testament. Texts that appear dualistic (e.g., Matthew 10:28, Luke 23:43) can be reconciled with a monistic anthropology if interpreted as descriptions of a temporary state after death, rather than assertions of an eternal disembodied existence of the soul separate from the body.

The true, original Christian message about humanity was likely more holistic, emphasizing the value of all that God created—including the body, which is not a prison but an integral part of the person, destined for resurrection and transformation.

But what if we deconstruct religious notions as later superstructures and approach the interpretation of the Gospel from a monistic perspective? What if there is no separate, disembodied soul existing apart from the person? What if the human body is not a cage, not a mortal and base vessel, but a valuable creation destined for glorification? What if humanity is valuable as such, in its inseparable wholeness of spirit, soul, and body, and its resurrection after death is the sole truth about the afterlife, offering hope for a complete existence in a transformed state?